Organizational studies Essay Example for Free

Organizational studies EssayThe usable -Structural Approach has dominated organisational studies. Describe and discuss the image fully and assess the challenge posed to it by Postmodernism. Introduction Functional climax Is considered the second precise essential paradigm In psychology. Functional geomorphological greet in psychology deals with cognitive processes that Incorporate consciousness (Burrell and Gareth, 41). William James the father of operating(a) glide slope came up to this paradigm f read-only storage a viewpoint that available uprise in psychology is very important biological function.He also postulated that sychologists ought to understand the functions related to cognition so as to comprehend how mental processes in serviceman operate. Organizational studies is the regard that Involves examining how individuals build organisational processes, structures, and practices, moreover, it studies how these phenomenon in turn shape tender Interactions an d creates makeups that impacts individuals (Knights, and Glenn, 252). Remarkably, organisational studies incorporate diverse areas that consider varied features of the organization.Arguably, cognitive oriented psychologists often describe human behavioral activities rom the perspective of mental constructs they argue that classical conditioning as a means of behavior salmagundi is due the construction of associations within the individuals cognition. Postmodernism in philosophy is a movement that is very precarious of the precedent assumptions and the propensity of western philosophy. Generally, postmodernism emphasizes the signifi bungholece of personalization, power relationships and discourse in construction of the world views and truth (Alvesson, 5).It preempt be described as a set of strategic. critical, and rhetorical activities incorporating the function f concepts that Include trace, repetition and hyper reality to subvert other concepts such as Identity epistemic ce rtainty, unlvoclty of meaning and historical progress. by-line the be potence of functional structural approach in organizational studies currently. this paper ordain present how functional structural approach has dominated organizational studies.Moreover, it will discuss this paradigm fully and moreover assess the challenge posed to It by postmodernism. Functional Structural Approach As a structural tneory, Tunctlonal structural approacn vlews tne organlzatlon In tne ociety being more important than any other individual within the fellowship. Arguably, functional structural approach is a top down concept individuals in the long run ware products of societal influences as they become socialized by the institutions around them that include media, religion, family, and education.Functional approach is very important in the development of organizational studies be pay back it offers a perspective of viewing the society as a set of interconnected parts that in the long run fun ction as a whole. It is therefrom of great importance to acknowledge he importance of functional structural approach in the study of organizational studies. Other than explaining the cognitive operations of human beings, the functional structural approach offers a computer programme of sense the relationships that exist between these parts in the society thereof contributing towards the maintenance of society. finished the nonion of structural functionalism approach, the use of cognitive analogy in the tradition of Spencer, Comte and Durkheim has greatly influenced upon sociological thinking (Burrell and Gareth, 43). By deriving upon the concepts of interrelationships between parts, holism, functions and needs the biological equivalence has been constructed in varied was to develop a social science perspective firmly linked to the sociology of regulation.Following the functional structural approach, the study of organizational studies have simplified in that functionalist beli eve that sociological matters should be approach from a perspective of scientific situations, a concept otherwise known positivism. agree to the father of positivism Anguste Comte, functionalism should be establish n primary facts and objectively weighed hence making it possible to crease issues in the society that impact individuals hence providing a frame stool for innovation in law and implementing new legislation (Siebert, 36).The functional structural approach has been established to be of great significance in the study of organizational studies in that, by adopting the use of methodology in natural science and focusing on direct observable social facts, unity is able to understand how parts that exist in the society function, hence the organizational behavior, organizational culture, organizational psychology, and organizational heory. Functional structural approach in sociology stresses the significance of the existing interdependence among various patterns and instituti ons within a social setting for its long term subsistence.According to mile Durkheim, functionalism is essential in understanding the utility of cultural and social traits, because it enlightens its contribution to the maneuvering of the overall system. Functionalism is therefore of great importance to the study of social behavior, organizational culture, organizational psychology, and organizational theory, because It OTTers a platTorm 0T crltlcally revlewlng tne reasons Denlna ce rtaln Denavlor patterns based on cognitive analysis.Arguably, functional approach is very significant in the study of attitudes (Herbert, 10). Understanding attitudes is very important to organizational studies. From a psychological point of view, the reasons behind changing attitudes are derived from the functions they accomplish to the individual specifically incorporating value expression, ego defense mechanism and knowledge. It is therefore very important to none the dominance of functional approach not only to the study of patterns in the society but lso to the changing attitudes from a cognitive perspective.In the recent years, organizational studies have been established to be increasingly important in social scientific investigation. Based on the figure of research studies related to functional structural approach, it is important to note that organizational studies have claimed a wagerer part of the functional approach (Crowther and Green, 50). Most research these days seeks a functional explanation of organizational studies, thus a societal functioning. What is the future of functional approach in organizational studies?Despite the impedance encountered by scientifically oriented organizational studies from some British organization researchers, their support on qualitative studies failed to yield credible knowledge. Their qualitative studies on organizational studies were not incorporated in the literature of organization studies because it produced no generalized kn owledge. Following the failure of qualitative studies from these researchers, there has been a great increase in the number of researchers that incorporate the use of functional approach when researching issues that relate to rganizational studies.Majority of these researchers are oriented to the functional structural approach. Remarkably, the functional paradigm in psychology have hampered the rapid development of organizational studies, this will benefit the future due to the increased use of cognitive perspectives to in understanding patterns and structures in the society. Arguably, organizational studies will always provide knowledge about the performance within a society to the succeed generations by incorporating and applying the use of functional approach hence making progress in social science.According to Hawthorne studies, functional approach has been helpful and dominant in studying and analyzing the behavior patterns among employees (Burrell and Gareth, 131). The conclus ion made from these studies emerged based on conceptual scheme explanation of employee complaint which was determined drawing explanations from the functional approach. It is important to note that functional approach has dominated research pertaining to industrial problems, the interface which occurs due to the changes in the physical purlieu and the equilibrium established in such settings .Remarkably, theoretical views have changed overtime, nese views nave Decome more certain ana amDlvalent. I nese views nave Deen incorporate to become more determinists, functionalists, more generalizing, and more organizationally rational. It is acknowledgeable that the functional approach has played a huge role towards explaining organizational studies. The challenge posed to Functional-structural approach by Postmodernism Despite the success and dominance of structural functional approach, postmodernism poses a great challenge to its subsistence and persistence.According to the post moderni sts, their theory is critical on the claims about bjectivity. The idea of grand theory is viewed by the postmodernists as skeptical and is viewed as unwarranted at its very least. This critique posed by the postmodernists to the structural functional approach has hindered the prosperity of this approach in the present times. Despite the importance of structural functional approach to organizational studies, postmodernism presents the dangers that the grand theory can pose, when not viewed as limited perspective when analyzing the society (Kilduff and Mihaela, 94).To some extent, the functional approach is not applicable in the postmodern society ecause norms and family structure within the society have incredibly changed overtime (Lord, 509), the changes know in the postmodern times can be attributed as a move towards the idea of a new explanation of organizational studies. From this perspective, the use of functional approach is not useful anymore since it does not apply to postmo dern society. The functional approach has been highly noticed for being more of teleological. It is has been viewed to be reverse the cause and effect order.Functional structural theory has faced a lot of criticisms from other social theories articularly the postmodernists. The near prevalent criticism faced by the social structural function from the postmodernists and other sociological notions, is the fact that most of these notions particularly the postmodern theory criticize the structural functional theory on the understanding that the concept systems of this theory offers too much un required weight to consensus and integration, hence neglecting the concept of interdependence and conflict.In this theory, Parsons gave no satisfactory explanation as to how actors exercise their agency in antagonism to inculcation and socialising of the accepted norms. Generally, the structural functional theory does not offer a credible explanation as to why individuals accept or choose some values and norms within the society. From a postmodernist approach, the intumescence of structural functional approach is heading to its end.This is based on the view that feminism is on a high rise and has launched critics on the functionalism theory. Considering that the functional approach did not incorporate the suppression of women in the society and the family, feminism and the post-modernist are at high opposition to the existence of this theory. Desplte tne Tact tnat Parsons aescrlDea sltuatlons tnat lead to tne rlse 0T women state of affairs and that some feminists agree that he provided accurate information concerning these situations.Parsons admits that he oversimplified his analysis concerning women in relation to family and work moreover he postulates that he focused more towards the positive functions within the family rather than its dysfunctions towards women. The postmodernist criticize this theory because it lacks the feminist stability. Arguably, the postmoderni st are likely to pose a huge challenge o the preponderance of this theory because it views the theory as a one that does not incorporate all the necessary elements.One major difference between modernism and any other notion paradigm in psychology particularly the functional approach is the fact that whereas the structural functional approach seek planetary laws for social behavior important in the study of organizational studies, the postmodernism views that the aim of social science should not be generalizability but rather innovation and discovery (Kilduff and Mihaela, 97). Remarkably, the catastrophe experienced in functional approach while analyzing rganizational studies can be attributed to postmodernism.Postmodernism is more likely to pose a huge challenge to the prevalence of functional approach, according to postmodernism, multiple contingencies upset outcomes while the historical and the cultural conditions can be unattended by people are well conversant with this knowled ge. Conclusions In conclusion, it is evident that functional structural approach has dominated organizational studies. Despite its prevalence, postmodernism post a huge challenge to its development and growth.

Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor Essay Example for Free

fluid Fluoride Thorium Reactor EssayRecently the spotlight has been set on renewable energies to assist with weaning off of greenhouse gas emissions, solving issues with faculty independence, and to exploit their inherent renewability. Unfortunately our engine room is not quite up to speed economically with our wish to rely completely on renewable energy, thence many non- renewable energies atomic number 18 recognized as viable options to power our economy (Fraser, 2011). The United States legitimate position on diversifying with non-renewables onsists of oil, natural gas, coal, and the less spoken of, nuclear power. Nuclear power is the process by which a reactor contains a slow explosion called fission, which gives Offa positive net amount of energy that derriere be harvested. Of course the social stigma around nuclear is so strong that til now if on that point were an un find completely safe type of nuclear power plant, Justifying the complex science would be challeng ing. afterward events such as Fukushima, Chernobyl, and Three Mile Island, the vast majority of society believes nuclear energy is goose egg more than a death wish.Contrary to best-selling(predicate) belief, a safer alternative in nuclear energy has been discovered and has been gaining popularity over the past few years despite the recent tragedy in japan (Sorensen, 2011). Though newly rekindled, the non-mainstream nuclear power known as Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) was discovered in the 1960s and had been proved to be a very attractive option to the more popular Light Water Reactor (LWR). It all began with nuclear physicist Alvin Weinberg, who would graduate from the University of Chicago soon become search conductor at the Oak Ridge NationalLaboratory (ORNL). Weinberg was given the freedom to experiment with plan multiple types of nuclear reactors including the prominent LWRs that are in commercial use today. Subsequently Weinberg had noted the capability danger of a LWR and moved on to designing a safer nuclear power technology that he would end up supporting for the rest of his life. His research team at ORNL created a fluid displace in a MSR, opposed to the traditional solid send away in LWRs, in order to cliff the pressure and overall danger of the corpse.To Weinbergs delight, although this rototype MSR had corrosive issues because of the salt involved, Weinberg deemed this technology far more superior to LWR. Furthermore, the wipe up part or so current hatred for LWRs is that although it can be a dangerous process, the technology is extremist and its power has potential that we are seriously unaware of. For now with our current state of knowledge about nuclear power combined with our worldly concerns predicament with how we generate power so ineffectively, MSRs must be and should go for always been the governments number one priority (Sorensen, 2011).This pecific type of nuclear reactor is certainly on the minds of at least China, India, B razil, Indonesia, South Korea, and Australia (Furukawa, 2008). Since these countries showed interest at least by 2008 it can be assumed that they are already in the process of construction. An example for our worst-case scenario would be for the United States to patently stand back and go steady as the rest ot the world capi talizes on the best power generating technology known to man. A technology that of course the United States developed and had in operation fifty years ago, entirely the idea simply aded away.As the majority of the US would like to go green, it may not be too too soon to claim the MSR as green nuclear power. Nuclear reactors do not emit greenhouse gases fetching care of one of the three major concerns with the future of energy. Though observing an entire life beat of Thorium and materials to make the power plant, there are transportation emissions involved. It turns out however, that Thorium is extremely hearty in the US as it is already mined concurrently with other(a) rare earth minerals but is typically discarded for lack of utility.The United States has omewhere in the order of 15% of the worlds total Thorium reserve at around 15 million tons (Bonometti, 2008). Even if we were to run out of Thorium, the Moon has even greater amounts that by the time we begin to hit peak Thorium it will surely be so far in the future that extracting moon materials would not be a challenge. As an investor this and assures a safe bet, but what is so safe about the LFTR design is that a meltdown or explosion is so much more unlikely to occur than in LWR systems. Since the carrier of thorium is a liquid, liquid fluoride, it allows standard pressure at igh temperatures.Traditionally, in LWR, water had to cool down the solid fuel since it couldnt handle the high temperatures because of high pressure, which had always been a fine line behind meltdowns (Sorensen, 2011). In the LFTR, the system can naturally correct an over heated system by melting a g elid salt plug at the base of the system to enter into an emergency cooling tank. If LFTR technology has already been proved, proved to be safe, proved to be powerful, and proved to be available and cheap, then why doesnt the world run on it?The technology itself seems to be a it mysterious itself or maybe doubtful since it has already been ignored once before. What it comes down to is the timescale that nuclear reactors had been created. Back at Oak Ridge Laboratory where Weinberg had knowing nuclear power he first designed the LWR, which happened to be more dangerous, but nevertheless inform his results. Quickly academics and politicians alike were astounded by the amount of power that could be generated through nuclear fission. Academics such as Weinberg understood the dangerous design of the LWR and proceeded to design afer alternatives, hence the MSR.Politicians on the other hand, had deadlines to meet, people to please, Jobs to create, and the LWR went commercial. thither is even a specific phone call between President Nixon and a California LWR director expressing swift actions to commercialize the technology before elections (Sorensen, 2011). As Weinberg fought the Nixon administration to stop continuing with LWRs he was soon fired from the Oak Ridge Lab and so did the MSR department. Thus many scientists have since seen and admired his throw and have finally had reason to express its arious benefits once the inevitable failures of LWR ensued, for example, Fukushima.In addition, it is important to note how solution issues with LWR nuclear plants in the past have all been due to the intrinsic severey with handling a solid fuel at its required high pressure for fission to take place. In other words, none of those accidents would have happened if they would have simply listened to their founder, Weinberg, and chose to go with an MSR design. As the public is informed with this somewhat difficult science I imagine it will take about as long to understan d the itterence in types ot nuclear reactors as it did tor the majority ot the population to understand the science behind the greenhouse effect.This is based on the fact that the same oil and coal industries will be threatened along with ill-educated environmentalists who will brutally support only renewable energy.

Auditory System Essay Example for Free

Auditory System EssayThe initiation contains all kinds of energy that translates into in contour lineation about what we see, h stiletto heel, smell, touch and taste. A sensory system is a procedure of the nervous system responsible for processing specific sensory information. The components of a sensory system overwhelm sensory sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. To begin, energy from the environment stimulates the receptor cells in whichever sense organ is being used. If this information were auditive, the ear would convert sound moving ridges in the send off into electrical impulses that would further be interpreted by the brain as sound. A sound wave first estimates the pinna, the fleshy part of the ear on the outside of the body. It then travels through the external audile canal where it then meets the eardrum, a thin membrane in the outer ear. The eardrum then broods in response to the sound wave. What we hear will depend on the wavelength and frequency of the wave. The eardrum is connected to a group of ternion small bones call the ossicles in the middle ear. This group includes the malleus, incus and the stapes. These three bones, the smallest in the human body, protect the eardrum from more intense sounds and also deliver the vibrations to the base of the stapes.The stapes then sends the vibrations into the inner ear and interacts with the round window. The round window, a small membrane that allows liquid within the inner ear to be displaced and receive the vibration. The vibration travels through the spiral mental synthesis of the inner ear called the cochlea and ends at the round window. Inside the cochlea there are three canals the scala vestibuli, the scala media and the scala kettleful. The scala vestibule leads up to the apex of the cochlea, the scala tympani leads down to the round window and the scala media sits in between the other ii canals.All of these canals are chan ge with fluid and are separated by two different membranes Reissners membrane and the Basilar membrane. twain of these membranes are flexible and respond to the vibrations traveling through the scala vestibuli. The movements of the membranes then send the vibrations down the scala tympani. A structure called the reed organ of Corti, which is situated on the basilar membrane, becomes stimulated as the membrane vibrates and sends nerve impulses to the brain. Within the Organ of Corti are a group of specialized cells called hair cells, which are covered by the tectorial membrane.As the basilar membrane vibrates, the hair cells are bents and push up against the tectorial membrane. This causes the hair cells to fire and send nerve impulses to the auditory cortex on each of the brains hemispheres through the cochlear nerve. How we determine pitch can be explained with two different theories. The Place Theory states that the entire basilar membrane does not vibrate at at one time so di fferent parts of the basilar membrane respond to different frequencies of sound. Lower frequency sounds vibrate the basilar membrane near the apex of the cochlea while higher frequency sounds produce vibrations closer to the base.The oftenness Theory states that the frequency of firing matches the frequency of the sound wave. Hearing loss can occur for a number of reasons. Damage to the eardrum due to age and prolonged exposure to loud noise whitethorn cause the hairs or nerve cells in the cochlea to wear out and become less effective. A buildup of cerumen can block the ear canal and prevent of sound waves from entering the eardrum. Otosclerosis, a genetic form of hearing loss in which the stapes is fixed in place so sound cannot enter the inner ear.

Equality frequently throughout the texts Essay Example for Free

followity frequently finishedout the texts EssayEquality is downstairsstood and implied differently by everyone. Thats why it is easier said than make to pin point what embodyity truly is, or else can be classed as. Thomas Mores Utopia and Gorge Orwells 1984 search the issues of equateity frequently by means ofout the texts, although it is the like bow that is portrayed, the behavior in which they do it is individual to their individualised views and interpretations of equality, which is often effect by there culture and the time period of which was written. Thomas More implies the theme of equality throughout the book through the subject matter of labour and education.Farming is everybodys job The wo hands and men both have equal opportunity to study a trade as well as functioning in farming. Furthermore, the Utopians all(prenominal) have the same working hours and hours of free time, building the great deal into an equal unit, contrasting to a experimental con dition based capitalist countries. More eludes the sense of equality through the determination of pedantic numerical figures, omnisciently manipulating the commentator into believing in this all equal society without questioning, almost creating a semblance. More continues to reinforce the theme of equality by touching on the Utopians educational methods.An illustration of this would be the fact that students ar taught in mixed energy groups, there is no higher achy existence or higher tiers. Utopians argon all taught evenly rather than individualising them through different intellectual ability. From the playscript go the Utopians be indoctrinated into prioritising agriculture. They are all required to study from a small selection of trades this removes the ability to make individual choices making the utopians become psychologically equal. This is so the people do not became philosophic and start questioning their society, therefore they are all as being manipulated.More eludes equality through synthetically listing the trades, subliminally making us believe Utopians have a large choice of trades, when in reality there is a small restricting hand full that makes sure people are equal and can not gain status through their work place. Everyone is brought up to have equal aims working the trade that is essential to the Utopians survival. More successfully creates a constant feel for equality trough the repetition of plural pronouns they all everyone The connotation of the lexical choices used suggest of equality and collaboration.More neer individualises anyone, an example of this would be the fact that during this passage Raphael never uses the names of the people this subliminally reinforces equality. Practicality is clearly an equal precedence for the Utopians essential to the public They only practice trades that are essential to survival their clothing is set aboutd based on practicality in the work place as well as every day functioning although this way of life sounds lifeless and boring nether the less Raphael seems to enjoy it these clothes are quite sweet to waitress at Mores descriptive writing creates an image, a sea of people who are equal physically and mentally, the imagery produced create a feel of indoctrination the connotation of this passage, produced by the suggestive lexical choices suggest of a society were individually has disappeared so much so that even physically they are starting to look equal. Raphael continues to talk about clothing Everyone wears the same chassis of clothing This removes individual style and stereotypes from society, therefore no one has the chance to convey7 power or status through how they dress.This however is a complete apposition to the society More comes from were people such as Henry the 8th, rely heavily on flair to convey their wealth and power. However the portrayal of complete and utter equality is clearly ironical contrasted by the fact that Raphael then go es on to state they vary according to sex and material status This movement the theme of equality through the use of inequality. George Orwells 1984 suggests of an emotional equality by describing hate week savage, barking circle The military connotation suggests that the musics purpose is to evoke strong emotion.This implies that Big Brother aims to create unity of the people through emotional hate. The purpose of this would be to create an equal response from society as a whole making sure none question the meaning of hate week. Orwell makes us as the reader also feel the hate by pace shifting the text through the use of a asyndetical sentence structure, causing the reader to read at a faster pace therefore, making us feel emotionally equal to the characters because the read to feels the tension and rush they seem to feel in the book. Propaganda is introduced through the use of branding victory mansion The mention of victory items is a constant theme business the way throu gh the book. The repetition and reinforcements of possessions such as victory gin creates propaganda were the characters are equally subliminally manipulated. The characters are force to believe in the sense of winning there is no question of losing, they are so confident about the matter in hand. Furthermore this creates equality as they all have the same branding of products therefore know one can be classed as having a higher status or amount of wealth due to the branding they own.This has the same principles of why the utopians wear the same sort of clothing, also in 1984 they have to wear the same overalls, removing any individuality for society making all equal. This is a contrast to Orwells society were certain branded items implied you may have more class. Orwell starts using metaphoric references to describe Winston and Julia lay side by side on a stripped bed under the opens windows, naked for the sake of coolness. The rat never came back but the bugs had manipulated The ir nudity portrays a sense of equal vulnerability in which they both feel free and careless of their surroundings.Furthermore they are both equally disobeying the rules of their society, both continuing to question the regulations, in other word Julia and Winston are unified and are equally taking a stand by no longer fighting their sexual animal instincts. Julia and Winston are portrayed as an equal force, they both have equal power over each other. The bugs produce connotations of being dirty which is what society views on sex, this is metaphorical for Julia and Winston being scandalise and dirty. The rats however represents humans inhering animalised sexual instinct. The bugs and rats implied meaning contrast massively.

Cost Accounting Essay Example for Free

Cost Accounting EssayQuestions arise as to why rudiment entrapuation is favored in certain companies and fails in others. Based on the contingency theory, searchers have argued that the reasons for different degrees of alphabet mastery could be due to the different contextual factors faced by each firm. These have led look forers to complete assessing factors that influence first rudiment success implementation as an important research atomic number 18a.The following are among the research that have been carried out to experience factors that influence alphabet success Anderson 18 resistance 3 McGowan and Klammer 19 Krumwiede 20 and Anderson and Young 21 This article has cardinal main objectives the first objective is to identify research gaps based on the revision of previous(prenominal) research and the second objective is to propose theoretical research framework for present-day(prenominal) research. This article is organized as follows Section II presents a discussion of selected articles related to to factors influencing first principle implementation and gaps or limitations of previous studies and suggestions for current research are stated in the section III and IV. The framework for current research is provided in section V, Section VI defines each research variable and the final section presents the conclusion. II. PREVIOUS look for In this section, selected first principle implementation empirical 144AbstractIn todays modernistic manufacturing and competitive environment, accurate personifying information is crucial for all the kinds of businesses, such as manufacturing firms, merchandizing firms, and serve firms. Argued to be superior to the traditional volume-based costing system, Activity-Based Costing system ( first rudiment) has increasingly attracted the attention of practiti mavenrs and researchers alike as one of the strategical tools to aid managers for better finding making.The benefits of rudiment system and its impacts on companies performance have motivate numerous empirical studies on first principle system and it is considered as one of the most-researched prudence accounting areas in developed countries. Previous research on rudiment have examined pertinent issues related to first rudiment implementation such as the levels of first principle adoption in variant countries, the reasons for implementing first rudiment, the problems related to rudiment and the critical success factors influencing ABC.This paper reviews the research on ABC carried out deep down the last decade, from 1995-2008, and from the review research gaps are identified. Specifically, this paper examines the selection of factors influencing successful ABC implementation, variables dod by previous research and the definitions and operationalization of the variables. The review reveals that outgoing research turn mainly on behavioral, organisational, and practiced variables as the main determinants of ABC success further very little research have been done to examine the roles of organizational culture and structure.Based on the research gaps identified, a research framework for future research is provided. Index TermsAdvanced Manufacturing Activity-Based Costing, ABC Success Environment, I. INTRODUCTION In todays competitive and continually changing business environment, firms motivation to be vigilant of the impacts of the changes in the business environment and devise appropriate strategies to survive and prosper. Advancements in manufacturing and converse technologies have drastically changed the ways businesses conduct their activities.Adoption of advanced manufacturing technologies such as robotics and computerized manufacturing have resulted in significant changes in the manufacturing cost structure which have led academics and practitioners to argue that the traditional costing methods are no longer sufficient within this parvenue manufacturing environment 1 (Johnson and Kaplan, 1987). This had resulted in the change from the traditional volume-based cost model to new costing methods such as Activity Based Costing (ABC) 2.Due to its cogency in providing more accurate costing information and enhancing firms performance, ABC is International ledger of Trade, Economics and Finance, Vol. 1, no(prenominal) 2, August, 2010 2010-023X studies, which spanned 1995-2008 periods, were collected from four prominent refereed accounting research journals, in prudence accounting field Journal of Management Accounting Research, Accounting, Organizations and Society, Management Accounting Research and British Accounting Review.Factors used by previous research to investigate the effect on ABC success implementation are summarized, and wooden leg of ABC implementation besides is outlined. A. Technical Variables Early studies of ABC adoption and implementation undertaken by previous researchers concentrated on technological factors, such as identification of mai n activities, selection of cost drivers, problem in accumulating cost data. Example of these research are Cooper 9, Morrow and Connelly 22.However, technical factors alone may not be adequate to explain the factors influencing ABC success implementation. Cooper et al. 23 argued that the key problem during ABC implementation stage is that companies only focus on technical factors. They suggested that to make ABC implementation more effective, non-technical factors such as liaison of non-accounting in ABC implementation process, top management championship, adequate formulation program to employees virtually the objectives and benefits of ABC should be emphasized as well.Similar opinions were expressed by Shield 3 and Shields and McEwen 14. Shield (1995) piece no significant family between technical factors and ABC success. Shields and McEwen 14 also eminentlighted that sole emphasis on the architectural and software design of ABC systems leads to the failure of ABC implementati on. Therefore many researchers have suggested that new variables should be considered to investigate factors influencing ABC success. B.Contextual, Behavioral and Organizational Variables Recognizing the research gaps in identifying factors that may instill ABC success, academicians shifted their focuses from technical factors to other variables, such as contextual, behavioral and organizational, culture, as well as organizational structure. Anderson 18 conducted a longitudinal investigation of ABC process in General Motor (GM) from a period of 1986 to 1993. In his research, he examined the effects of organizational variables and contextual variables, and segmented ABC implementation into four major stages, initiation, adoption, version and acceptance.He put that organizational factors, such as top management support and training for the ABC system affected various stages of ABC significantly, eyepatch contextual variables, such as competition, relevance to managers decisions an d compatibility with animate systems produced different degree of impact on different stages of ABC. Shield 3 examined the human family relationships between diversity of behavioral, organizational and technical factors and the success of ABC implementation.She employed Shield and Youngs 24 framework and summarized behavioral and organizational variables as top management support, adequate resources, training, contact lens ABC system to performance valuation and allowance, non-accounting ownership, link ABC to competitive strategies as well as clarity of ABC objectives. She found that top management support, gene linkage to quality initiatives and to personal performance measure (pay/appraisal), implementation of training and resource adequacy were the significant predictors in explaining ABC success.She also found that technical variables were not associated with ABC success. Shields findings are back up by other researchers, such as Shield and McEwen 14, who argued that a s ignificant cause for unsuccessful implementations of ABC of several companies could be due to the emphasis of architectural and software design of the ABC system and little attention given to behavioral and organizational issues, which were identified by Shield 3. Krumwiede and Roth 25 also stated that barriers of ABC implementation can be overcome if firms could give importance to behavioral and rganizational variables identified by Shield 3. Similarly, Norris 26 agreed with Shields 3 findings that the association between ABC success and behavioral and organizational variables is stronger than with technical variables.She further highlighted that the impact of behavioral, organizational and technical should be focused at individual level. McGowan and Klammer 19 conducted a scan of 53 employees from 4 targeted sites in the U. S. o examine whether employees satisfaction levels are associated with ABC implementation by They also measured their perceptions of the factors associated w ith the degree of satisfaction, such as top management support the degree of involvement in the implementation process objectives clearly stated objectives shared training linkage to performance evaluation system adequate resources information quality and preparer over user. Their results indicated that employees satisfaction with ABC implementation was positively related with clarity of objectives and quality of ABC information.Gosselin 15 carried out a survey of 161 Canadian manufacturing companies to examine the effects of strategic posture and organizational structure on adoption and implementation of general forms of Activity-based costing. He segmented the ABC implementation stage into adoption and implementation. The research findings showed that a prospector strategy was associated with manager decision to adopt ABC, while centralization and formalization were significantly associated with ABC success implementation. Krumwiede 20 surveyed U.S manufacturing firms to study how contextual factors, such as the potential for cost distortion or size of firms organizational factors, such as top management support, training or non-accounting ownership, affect each stage of ABC implementation process. His findings showed that the different factors affected the various stages of implementation of ABC and the degree of importance of each factor varies according to the stage of implementation. Contextual factors, such as usefulness of cost information, IT existence, less task uncertainty and large organizations were related to ABC adoption.Moreover, organizational factors, such as top management support, non-accounting ownership, and implementation training affect ABC success implementation. cxlv International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance, Vol. 1, No. 2, August, 2010 2010-023X In another study by Anderson and Young 21, the relationship between organizational and contextual variables, such as organizational structures, task characteristics, management s upport, information engine room and ABC success was examined.The result confirmed the importance of organizational factors (top management support and adequacy resources) during the ABC implementation stage. In South Africa, Sartorius et al. 27 carried out a mail survey to investigate the effect of organizational factors such as top management, adequate resources, coherence with organizational goals and strategy on ABC success. They found top management support and resources were the crucial factors in explaining ABC success. In the UK, Innes and Mitchell 4 and 12 surveyed the extent of ABC adoption among largest firms.The study aimed to find out factors influencing ABC success by victimization behavioral and organizational variables, and it was found that top management influenced ABC success significantly. In another study conducted by Khalid 28 using a questionnaire survey among the largest 100 firms in Saudi Arabia, ABC adoption was found to be positively related to diversity of products. In Malaysia, Ruhanita et al. 29 conducted a mail survey and a incase study to examine that factors influencing ABC success, especially at adoption stage.They found the significant factors were cost distortion, decision usefulness, information technology and organizational factors. In addition, the findings showed that decision usefulness, top management support, link ABC to performance measure and compensation influenced the ABC success adoption significantly. A case study of one Chinese manufacturing firm was carried by Lana and Fei 30 in China. Their research aimed to examine some key success factors pertinent to ABC implementation within Chinese organizational and cultural setting.The research findings showed that top management support, hierarchical and communication structure and high proportion of dedicated professionals were the significant factors in determining ABC success implementation. Majid et al. 7 used a case study approach to describe the process of ABC implementation in a Malaysian service company and a Malaysian manufacturing company. In this research, they categorized ABC implementation into initiation and adoption, design, implementation and use of information.The purpose of the research was to find out the problems faced during ABC implementation, He found that the factors determining ABC success were top management support, suitable ABC software, and finally, ensuring that all affected employees understand and participate in the ABC implementation stage. And they also found that at different stages of ABC, the dominant factors influencing ABC success were also different. Colin et al. 31 adopted behavioral and organizational factors summarized by Shield (1995) to examine factors influencing the adoption and degree of success of ABC systems and determinants of that success.In their research, the targeted research population was manufacturing and service firms in the UK. They found that top management support, non-accounting ow nership, adequate training provided to ABC determined the ABC success. Besides behavioral, organizational and technical variable, some researchers also indicated that the attributes of national cultures could affect the level of ABC success 32, 33. Brewer 32 used Hofstedes taxonomy of work-related cultural values to examine the relationship between national culture and Activity-Based Costing system.In the study, Hofstede 34s work was applied to the case of Harris semiconducting material (HS), which has implemented ABC at plants in Malaysia and the USA. The results showed that the level of ABC success in Malaysia was higher than that of U. S due to high-power-distance and collectivist cultures in Malaysia. In addition, Supitcha and Frederick 33 also included national cultures dimension into framework in a case study of one Thai state-owned enterprises budgeting system.They found that due to cultural differences, modifications were required when the organizations in Thailand tried t o implement ABC system in Thai environment. Apart from national culture, corporate culture factors were also tested by prior research. Baird, Harrison and Reeve 17 conducted a study to investigate the relationship between the extent of ABC adoption and the organizational variables of size and decision usefulness of cost information and business unit culture. In their research, data were collected by a mail survey questionnaire and samples were randomly selected from business units in Australia.The research finding showed significant relationships between ABC adoption and decision usefulness, cultural dimensions of outcome druthers and tight verse loose control. Baird, Harrison and Reeve 16 examined the relationship between success of activity management practices and organizational factors (top management support, training, link to performance evaluation and compensation, and link to quality initiatives), and organizational culture (outcome orientation, team orientation, attention to detail, as well as innovation).They adopted a survey questionnaire method on randomly chosen business units in Australia. The findings showed that two organizational factors (top management support, link to quality initiatives) explained the variations in success of activity management practices, such as ABC, and outcome orientation and attention to detail of organizational culture were associated with ABC success. They also stressed that compared with organizational culture, organizational factors had stronger associations with the ABC.

Social Gender Essay Example for Free

Social Gender EssayGender is a collection of expectations and privileges that is assigned to masses of a different sex. Sex is a determination made through the application of socially agree upon biological criteria for classifying a person as male or female. Everyone can relate to social sex roles and the effect it has on the person we are today. Lorber in dark to his Day The Construction of Gender says, everyone does sex activity unknowingly callable to it being done so often. Without us recognizing we are shaped and forced into doing sexual activity by others and society. Gender roles give certain people a certain around sorority and social spatial relation levels as to males being masculine strong individuals, who brings home the bacon, who are independent and able to take help of the needs of himself and his family. On the other hand females in western society have be markn as being feminine, nurturing, beautiful, loving, takes care of all house duties, and always ha ve a meal prepared for her hubby when he is finished his long day at work. Lorber says, In todays society gender roles are drastically ever-changing for men and women.Today fathers are taking care of little children, girls and little boys are wearing away unisex clothing and getting the same education, women and men are working at the same subscriber line (336). Dating back to over 100 years ago gender roles and differences have been very strict, we see in todays society that it is drastically changing and that males and females are able to accomplish the same task. Lots of students whitethorn have misconceptions on gender in society today. Gender is not always understood due to the drastic change in the roles in society today.It is not always evident how it has an effect on our lives and how it has molded us into the persons we are today. Without knowing many students do gender unknowingly through passing(a) activities, such as what we wear, how we talk, and the way we act aro und one some other. By freshman students reading Lorbers, Night to his Day The Construction of Gender it will give them understanding on social gender and how it is changing in society today. Gender before was attached to a person by the way you look, act, and do thing different things.As seen in earlier times, men have worked outside their homes, being the main source of income for their family. As for that they held some of the most powerful positions and Jobs in society, such Lawyer, and politician. Women on the other hand, rule the home. They were expected to stay home raise children and have an evening meal prepared for or another stereotypical female position. Now females are high ranking officials, judges and are making gigantic impacts on life today.

Psychoanalytical Approach to Family Counseling Essay Example for Free

Psychoanalytical Approach to Family focusing EssayWhether angiotensin converting enzyme is advised of it or non, we exclusively squander our respective worldviews. The way we view lifespan in general and our flak to it is the worldview that control and guide us in any determination that we ask in the way we cope pressures, and even so as we celebrate and enjoy good days. Since on a cross worldview a individual stands or falls, it is very burning(prenominal) to regularly check and evaluate ones philosophy of life. If I ordain be asked the question Which philosophy is the surpass philosophy? The best answer that I place come down up with is, Of course, the philosophy that encourages intellectual development. Christianity is a religion that has been comp atomic number 18d, every now and then, to galore(postnominal) philosophical persuasions and nigh of the time, it was either mixed with some other worldviews which were totally strange to it, or the propon ents of other strange worldviews have attempted to enjoin Christianity to their philosophy, which inevitably have resulted in confusion and intellectual duplicity in unmarrieds who view and experiment into this game (Cheung, 2007, p. 34). For generations, people in opposite civilizations have give way witnesses of how their fellows advocated multiple philosophical disciplines.In fact, instantly, if one would just observe closely, some hold a conflate of various article of faiths that got rooted and accumulated for years in the family via environ kind conditioning. The by-product of this kind of influence is an individual who cope through and through the varying situations and circumstances of life with the competence of a chameleon. This kind of approach will not properly help in the development and growth of a soulfulness as he or she wades his/her way through college. Contrary to the perception of umpteen, the Biblical Worldview is the one philosophy that encourages the pursuit of true up knowledge.It, in fact, com populaceds the engagement of the intellect in the pursuit and exploration of true scientific studies. What precipitated the period of discernment? Was it not when people were hungry for the Truth (Shelley, 1982, p. 55)? And these are periods in the history of gentlemans gentlemankind when the Biblical Worldview was world brought to the fore of societys endeavors. If at that place are two philosophies that developed naturally from one to another, they are Judaism and Christianity. The flow of growth from beginning to consummation is dis limited in the Old and the virgin Testament of the script (Escalona, 2008, p.87). B. Literature review The Extent of Usefulness of the possibleness A survey in literature reveals that there is little evidence so far in studies that deliberately seek to retard the efficacies of psychodynamic approach in comparison with any of the other approaches in the treatment of abnormal bearing. A few whi ch came come out of the closet, in particular one research looked into the applicability of treatment in anorexia and binge-eating syndrome cases which utilized the psychodynamic model and other models much(prenominal)(prenominal) as cognitive orientation treatment. Results of the experiment by Bachar et al (1999, p.67) showed confident(p) outcomes where this particular approach was used. It moldiness be remembered that mainstream psychological science and psychiatry widely use the cognitive model in explaining and treating abnormal behavior. In the controlled, randomized show by Bachar and team members however, the research highlighted the efficacy of psychodynamic approach in the treatment of anorexia and bulimia dis secerns. opposite studies however show that healers usually employ a conspiracy of cognitive and psychodynamic approaches or an integrative method in the psychological treatments and encumbrances (Kasl-Godley, 2000, p.92). Many of the cases today then, supp ort this view rather than a private method in an efficacious treatment of many of these kind and emotional diseases. The disadvantages of the psychodynamic approach in many of the studies done based on a using this as a one method is that of the unpatterned difficulty of precise measurements on the treatment procedure itself. The approach usually is limited by whether it move be exactly replicated. Specifically, one other limitation or disadvantage is that the cause of phenomena (i. e. , symptom substation) cannot be located.In addition, another setback is that not all individuals can be hypnotized when using hypnosis in the therapy especially (Kaplan, 1994, p. 431). Reference Bachar, Eytan, Yael Latzer,Shulamit Kreitler, Elliot Berry 1999. Empirical comparison of two psychological therapies Self Psychology and cognitive Orientation in the treatment of Anorezia and Bulimia. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research. American Psychiatric Association 8115-128, Freud, Sigmun d. 1901 1990. The psychopathology of everyday life. New York. W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. Halonen, JS and JW Santrock, 1996.Psychology Contexts of Behavior, Dubuque, IA embrown and Benchmark, p. 810. Hilgard, ER, RR Atkinson, and RC Atkinson 1983. excogitation to Psychology. 7th ed. New York Harcourt Brace Jovanich, Inc. Hurlok, E. B. 1964. babe Development. New York Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Kaplan, HI, BJ Saddock and JA Grebb. 1994. Kaplan and Saddocks Synopsis of Psychiatry Behaviroal Sciences clinical psychiatry. Baltimore Williams and Wilkins. Kasl-Godley, Julia 2000. Psychosocial intervention for individuals with dementia An desegregation of surmisal, therapy, and a clinical understanding of dementia.Clinical Psychological Review. Vol. 20(6). Leahey, B. B. 1995. Psychology An Introduction. Iowa WCB Brown and Benchmark. Rathus, S. A. 1990. Psychology 4th ed. Or destroyo Fl. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Sdorow, L. M. 1995. Psychology, 3rd ed. Dubuque, IAWCB Bro wn and Benchmark Publishers Santrock, J. W. 2000. Psychology. New York McGraw-Hill. ________ Models of freakishness http//intranet1. sutcol. ac. uk888/NEC/MATERIAL/PDFS/PSYCHO/ASPSYCHO/23U2_T5. PDF Part II. Integration Section A. Introduction Nowhere is counseling more relevant than the conditions and dilemmas faced by man today.The Bible mentions most the the fears that encounter kinds then during the early days, and which will be fuck offd as well as time draws to a close. Jeremiah 178 implies about the kind of fear which some if not many, will succumb when passionateness comes (RSV). This illustrates as well that the stressful days are but natural to ones creation an affliction to origination born into a fallen world. Ephesians 2 is even more clear what befalls on a person who is dead in trespasses and sins (KJV) he is subject to the dictates of a world system (v. 2a, KJV), beingness in the clutches of the evil spirit (v. 2b, KJV), and awaits the anger that God has on them (v.3, KJV). All these may locate any individual to a life of anxiety, depression, wrongful habits ((v. 3, KJV), substance abuse and other addictions that definitely specify the deterioration of overall mental and physical health. The functioning therefore of any person may be compromised and taxed to the limits, producing individuals who are abusive and getting abused. When not operating in optimal condition, man is sure to experience what psychology tends to diagnose and label as malfunctioning and maladjusted at worst, the evidence of mental institutions pull throughence except shows how this truth has long been spoken about in the Bible.Hence, the Bible becoming more relevant, and a theologically and scientifically trained counselor is even more directed these days. In the line of counselling, the primary coil considerations that those in the field who are practicing directly or indirectly have something to do with the previously held belief system, or the worldview or philosophy behind the capriciousness of human behaviour. This goes to say that one who ventures into the ancestry of ameliorate and curing emotions and psychological lines must get into a thorough understanding of his/her personal approach to the study of human behaviour.The counselor seeks to explain human nature, the issue of sin or prbably emphasizing or step-down the Scriptural mandate and Gods verdict (whichever side he/she is on), and which eventually dictates intervention strategies, if any. It is even bold as to say that counseling in whatever front is basically ghost same(p) in nature because in the end, what is upheld or emphasized by the counselor expresses deep-rooted philosophy or religious beliefs.The paper thus seeks to present a personal understanding of how practice in counseling is believed to be done considering the personal qualities, depth and reallyizations of Biblical truths (this is pre-eminent), and many of the nitty-gritty concepts that comprise the practice of counseling in ones context. Being in contemporary America, with the recent economic meltdown that leave many surprised and shocked of the reduction of most of their economic capabilities to barely the minimum, being relevant as a counselor is not only a necessity, but it is the very important ingredient to helping many survive with their mental faculties intact.Therefore, this paper makes bold assumptions about human nature in general, how this is addressed in various situations that the average man will be meeting, and how growth (which is interpreted as a positive direction the individual will take) in all areas of his existence may take place. B. Psychoanalytic therapy lead figures Primary importance is given into the development of one of the most influential disciplines in the world today and that is psychology. This is due to the fact that psychology seemed almost starting signal off in virtually every kind of decision making process that man makes.Because of this serious biblical ministers and/or scholars or theologians have long analyze these effects and have come up with their answers and with their verdict. A Brief History of Modern Psychology by Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. (2006, p. 23) starts to trace the roots of psychology when Wundt, in 1879, initiated what is now recognized as the first psychology laboratory. The author Benjamin satisfies the reader on what made the psychology today a very untold pursued subject of interest as well as a career.Tackling on the lives of the people foremost in this discipline, the book made an otherwise boring and usually uninteresting subject matter into an kindle topic any student will be equal to handle. The author mentioned details of the pioneers lives and the social surroundings that characterized their lives and culture during their day which in all realistic evaluation had made its contribution to what their abstractive perspectives had developed. Other important highlights include the dev elopment of psychological tests and assessment techniques that Stanford and Binet spearheaded among others.The following narrative on one of psychologys key players and foremost in what is now known as the first tug in the field gives the reader the importance of their contribution to cotemporary psychology (Benjamin, 2006, p. 76). -Freud, Sigmund Viennese neurologist, undercoater of analysis (1856-1939) took his medical degree at the University of Vienna in 1881 and planned a specialists career in neurology. pretermit of means forced him to abandon his research interests for a clinical career.His interest in what was to become psychoanalysis developed during his collaboration with Josef Breuer in 1884, which resulted in Studies in Hysteria, The Interpretation of Dreams appeared in 1900, Three Contributions to the Theory of shake in 1905, and the General Introduction to Psychoanalysis in 1916 a book which contained the evolving conjecture of the libido and the unconscious(p )ness, in concomitant years, Freuds outlook became increasingly broad as revealed by the titles of his later works (Benjamin, 2006, p. 54).C. Psychoanalytic Theory The psychodynamic perspective is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. He created both a possible action to explain reputation and mental disorders, and the form of therapy known as psychoanalysis. The psychodynamic approach assumes that all behavior and mental processes reflect constant and unconscious struggles within person. These usually involve conflicts between our need to satisfy basic biological replete(predicate)s, for example, for food, depend upon or aggression, and the restrictions imposed by society.Not all those who take a Psychodynamic approach accept all of Freuds original ideas, but most would view normal or problematic behavior as the result of a failure to resolve conflicts adequately. This paper attempts to distinguish itself in stressful to not only understand the theory that Freud pioneered and po lished by some of his faithful followers but especially determine the extent of its usefulness in explaining and treating abnormal behavior.. It is the aim of the author to present in precis a description and explanation of the psychodynamic approach and its usefulness in the context of abnormal behavior (Kaplan, 1994, p.657). To interpret the theoretical framework of Freud in the context of the Christian religion or Biblical Christianity is internal in order to discover whether their fundamental teachings can mix well in mainstream Christianity. Freud taught about the character produces of id, ego and superego about free association, dispositions (life and death) his very controversial psychosexual stages of oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital the fixation and cathexis concepts. In general this is a theory of personality dynamics which is aimed at the motivational and emotional components of personality.It sounds good that fit in to Freud, man inherits the life and death instincts (libido and mortido). In the Biblical perspective, however, all these concepts are traceable to the sinful nature which all human species have inherited from the first couple Adam and Eve. In some portions of the Biblical record (Roman 512), Adam is said to be the federal head and from him has proceeded both sinful nature, which is inherent in all men, and death which is the Falls eventual outcome.The Bible highlights sin as the main problem of all of the manifestations of abnormality as reflected or manifested in the psyche or human behavior (Bobgan, 1987, p. 543). This theory discounts religions Gods pre-eminence, sovereignty and will, and active role in a persons life. It also discounts mans ultimate accountability before an almighty God. Moreover, it discounts many of the fundamentals that the Bible teaches, like sin and repentance, just Freuds other followers propounded (Bobgan, 1987, p. 544). Fundamentally, environment is not to be blamed.Nothing could be more accu rate than stating it in exactly the same manner that the Apostle has echoed the true earth of affairs. It is somehow true to say, Its all up in the take heed. People violate neighbors because first they have violated the laws of God. And so, In the futility of their mind, having their understanding darkened, being alienated from the life of God, because of the ignorance that is in them, because of the blindness of their heart who, being past feeling, have given themselves over to lewdness, to work all uncleanness with greediness (Eph.417-19). As daily news in the headlines air everyday, and practically speaking, people have made it their daily business to work driven by greed, never minding what they leave behind in their wake. Because the fight has long been upset which is in the level of consciousness everyone now is at the mercy of chance, relationally, in this world. And it goes both ways. Many of the disorders or mental illnesses recognized today without a doubt have thei r psychodynamic explanation aside from other viewpoints like that of the behaviourist, or the cognitivists.From simple childishness developmental diseases to Schizophrenia, there is a rationale that from Freuds camp is able to explain (Kaplan et al, 1994, p. 76, 98, 456). I. The Psychodynamic concepts A. Theory of Instincts Libido, Narcissism, Instincts and Pleasure Reality Principles. Freud employed libido to denote to that force by which the sexual instinct is represented in the mind. This concept is quite crude or raw in its form and then this refers far more than coitus.Narcissism was developed by Freud as his explanation of people who happened to have illogical libido and found that in the pre-occupation of the self or the ego, like in the cases of dementia praecox or schizophrenia. Persons afflicted with this mental illness appeared to have been reserved or withdrawing from other people or objects. This led Freud to conclude that a loss of contact with reality is usually common among such patients. The libido that he conceptualized as innate in every person is herein explained as invested somewhere else and that is precisely the role of self-love or narcism in the life of one afflicted.The occurrence of narcissism is not only among people with psychoses but also with what he calls neurotic persons or in normal people especially when undergoing conditions such as a physical disease or sleep. Freud explains further that narcissism exists already at birth hence, one can expect realistically that newborn babies are wholly narcissistic (Sdorow, 1995, p. 67). Freud classified instincts into different distinguishing dimensions namely ego instincts, aggression, and life and death instincts.Ego instincts are the self-preservative cheeks within the person, while aggression is a separate construct or structure of the mind which is not a part of the self-preservative nature of the human mind. Its source is found in the muscles while its objective is destructi on. Life and death instincts called Eros and Thanatos are forces within the person that pulls in opposite directions. Death instinct is a more powerful force than life instinct (Rathus, 1988, p. 55). The pleasure and reality principles are distinct ideas that help understand the other aspects of Freuds theory.The latter is by and large a learned function and important in postponing the need to satisfy the self (Sdorow, 1995, p. 98). B. Topographical theory of the mind Much like real physical mapping or description of a land area, the topographical theory appeared as attempt to designate areas of the mind into regions the unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious. The Unconscious mind is shrouded in riddle (Kaplan, 1994). It is the repository of repressed ideas, experiences and/or affects that are primary considerations when the person is in therapy or treatment.It contains biological instincts such as sex and aggression. Some unconscious urges cannot be experienced conscious ly because mental images and words could not portray them all in their color and fury. Other unconscious urges may be kept on a lower floor the surface by repression. It is recognized as inaccessible to consciousness but can become conscious by means of the preconscious. Its content is confined to aspirationes seeking fulfilment and may provide the motive force for the formation of dream and neurotic symptoms.In other words, unconscious forces represent wishes, desires or thoughts, that, because of their disturbing or threatening content, we automatically repress and cannot voluntarily access (Santrock, 2000, p. 43). The Preconscious is a region of the mind which is not born(p) but developed only when childhood stage is beginning to emerge. The preconscious mind contains elements of experience that presently out of awareness but are made conscious simply by focusing on them. Freud tagged the region that poked through into the light of awareness as the Conscious part of the mind.Co nscious thoughts are wishes, desires, or thoughts that we are aware of, or can recall, at any given moment. It is closely related in understanding as that of the electronic organ of attention operating with the preconscious. With attention the individual is able to perceive extraneous stimuli. However, Freud theorized that our conscious thoughts are only a small part of our total mental activity, much of which involves unconscious thoughts or forces (Leahey, 1995, p. 433). C. Structural Theory of the MindFreud conceptualized the mind into what is called as triple provinces equivalent to its functions the id, ego and superego. The id is that aspect which only looks forward to gratifying any of its desires and without any delay. The ego is the structure of the mind which begins to develop during the first year of life, largely because a childs demands for gratification cannot all be met immediately. The ego stands for reason out and good sense (Freud, 1901, p. 22), for rational way s of coping with frustrations.It curbs the appetites of the id and makes plans that are compatible with social convention so that a person can find gratification yet avert the censure of others. In secern to the ids pleasure, the ego follows the reality principle. The reality principle has a policy of satisfying a wish or desire only if there is a socially acceptable outlet available (Halonen et al, 1996, p. 43). The superego develops passim early childhood, usually incorporating the moral standards and value of parents and important members of the community through identification.The superego holds forth shining examples of an sample self and also acts like the conscience, an internal moral guardian. Throughout life, the superego monitors the intentions of the ego and hands out belief of right and wrong. It floods the ego with feelings of guilt and shame when the verdict is negative (Halonen et al, 1996, p. 43). As children learn that they must follow rules and regulations in s atisfying their wishes, they develop a superego. The superego, which is Freuds third division of the mind, develops from the ego during early childhood (Hurlock, 196, p.66). Through interactions with the parents or caregivers, a child develops a superego by taking on or incorporating the parents or caregivers standards, values, and rules. The superegos power is in making the person feel guilty if the rules are discovered the pleasure-seeking, id wants to exclude feeling guilty. It is motivated to listen to the superego as a moral guardian or conscience that is trying to control the ids wishes and impulses (Hilgard, et al, 1979).From the Freudian perspective, a healthy personality has found ways to gratify most of the ids demands without seriously offending the superego. Most of the ids remaining demands are contained or repressed. If the ego is not a good problem solver or if the superego is too stern, the ego will have a hard time of it (Halonen et al, 1996, p. 43). D. Therapeutic goals Sigmund Freud offered a psychoanalytic viewpoint on the diagnosis and understanding of a persons mental health. Other perspectives, the behavioristic paradigm offers to see this in a different light.The psychoanalytic perspective emphasizes childhood experiences and the role of the unconscious mind in determining future behavior and in explaining and understanding current based on past behavior. Basing on his personality constructs of the Id, Ego and the Superego, Freud sees a mentally healthy person as possessing what he calls Ego strength. On the other hand, the behavior therapist sees a person as a learner in his environment, with the brain as his primary organ of survival and vehicle for acquiring his social functioning.With this paradigm, mental health is a result of the environments impact on the person he learns to fear or to be happy and therein lies the important key in understanding a persons mental state. Considering that the achievement and maintenance of mental health is one of the pursuits of psychology, the following is a brief outline of what psychologists would endorse a healthy lifestyle. The individual must consider each of the following and incorporate these in his/her day to day affairs 1. The medical checkup doctors viewpoint well-being emphasis than the illness model2. The Spiritual viewpoint- a lively spiritual growth must be on check. 3. The Psychologists viewpoint- emotional and relationship factors in balance. 4. The nutritionists viewpoint putting nutrition and health as top priority. 5. The Fitness Experts viewpoint- Exercise as part of a daily regimen. The theory I have in mind then is an union of several approaches, primarily the integration of the Christian worldview and the theories set forth by Cognitive-behaviorists and psychoanalytic models, and biological/physical continuum.There are other good models but a lot of reasons exist why they cannot be good enough a lot depends on my own personality. Being reliable to who you are, your passion, is effectively communicated across an audience whether it is a negative or positive one. The basic way of doing the amalgamation or integration is that the Christian worldview takes precedence over the rest of the approaches. Although many of the concepts and premises of each theory mentioned are sound and at times efficacious, when it clashes with the faith-based theory, the former must give way to the latter.It is understood then, that I thoroughly examined each of the theory and set them against the backdrop of spirituality. Interpreting a problem that a guest suffers for instance, entails that the theoretical viewpoint that I am convinced with, has go against chances of properly understanding the maladjustments that the client had been suffering. To come up with the balanced worldview (an integration in other words), the balance between the realms mentioned, including the true frame of human individuals and the true nature of God (or theology) are properly considered.Thoroughly accepting the fact that there is no contest between the natural and the spiritual only that troubles arise when one realm is overemphasized at the cost of another. This thin line or slight tension between the two levels is best expressed in the personhood of Jesus Christ, who was a perfect man as well as God. If we start to equate ourselves with that notion (which is usually happening) and we start to think that we are balanced, then we surely lack understanding or real self-awareness of the fact that we are deeply and seriously out of balance and this is one reason why we need help. What are your general goals in therapy? Christian counseling admittedly embraces in reality, a basic integration of the biblical precepts on the view of man and psychologys scientific breakthroughs in addressing the dilemmas that beset human individuals. Depending on the persuasion of the practitioner, especially whether he or she comes from either the purely theological or profane preparation, Christian counseling can either lean to certain degrees of theology or psychology. According to Larry Crabb, If psychology offers insights which will sharpen our counseling skills and increase our effectiveness, we want to know them.If all problems are at upshot spiritual matters we dont want to neglect the critically necessary resources available through the passkey by a wrong emphasis on psychological theory (Crabb in Anderson et al, 2000). Dr. Crabbs position certainly ensures that science in particular, has its place in counseling in as much as theology does. He made sure that all means are addressed as the counselor approaches his profession, especially in the actual conduction of both the diagnostic and remedial or intervention phases (Crabb in Anderson et al., 2000). Trauma inducing and crisis triggering situations have spiraled its occurrence and in its primacy in the US and in many other countries in recent years. Its broad spectrum ranges from the national disaster category such as that of Hurricane Katrina or the 911 terrorist strikes in New York, Spain and England, to private instances such as a loved ones attempt at suicide, the murder of a spouse or child, the beginning of mental illness, and the worsening situation of domestic madness (Teller et al, 2006).The acute crisis episode is a consequence of people who experience life-threatening events and feel overwhelmed with difficulty resolving the inner conflicts or anxiety that threaten their lives. They seek the help of counselors, paramedics and other health workers in crisis intervention centers to tide them over the acute episodes they are encountering. These are defining moments for people and must be adequately addressed else they lead lives with dysfunctional conduct patterns or disorders (Roberts et al, 2006). In the integrated or eclectic approach the goal of the therapy is not just relief to the patient or client.Although an immediate relief is very helpful , this may not always be the case in most illnesses. The goal as mentioned in the antecede pages is to provide long-term reduction of the symptoms and the occurrence of the disease altogether if possible. The management then is not unachievable but neither is this easy. Specifically, the counselee or patient must want to heal or believe that there is going to be curative effects in the process. It presupposes that he/she must learn to trust the therapist in his/her capabilities as well in leading or facilitating the changes or modifications.It is very much essential that (in the perspective of a cognitive-behaviorist) that the client understands ownership to the deeds and choices in thought patterns he/she made are crucial to the recurring or occurring condition that s/he experiences (Rubinstein et al. , 2007 Corey, 2004). Moreover, the identification of specific treatments or interventions according to the diagnosed issue will be accommodated and implemented based on the chosen t reatment modalities fit with the therapeutic approach utilized.It may be a single modality based on a single approach (e. g. , learning principles and desensitization for a patient with specific phobias) or it maybe a combination of many modalities (CBT, Rogerian, Phenomenological, or Family systems) (Rubinstein et al. , 2007 Corey, 2004). E. Summary Every theoretical approach has its own assumptions. In the psychodynamic theory, the following three assumptions help guide a student of human behavior or an expert in this field determine the underlying factors that explain the overt manifestations of specific behaviors. These assumptions therefore, help guide the diagnosis of the presence or absence of mental illness.They are the same assumptions that guide the therapist in choosing what treatment that will better help heal, cure or alleviate the symptoms. These assumptions are There are instinctive urges that drive personality formation. Personality growth is driven by conflict an d resolving anxieties. Unresolved anxieties produce neurotic symptoms (Source Models of abnormality, National flank College Trust, Ltd). The goals of treatment here include to alleviate patient of the symptoms is to uncover and work through unconscious conflict.The task of psychoanalytic therapy is to make the unconscious conscious to the patient (Models of abnormality, National Extension College Trust, Ltd). Employing the psychodynamic viewpoint, the therapist or social scientist believes that emotional conflicts, or neurosis, and/or disturbances in the mind are caused by unresolved conflicts which originated during childhood years. Reference Corey, Gerald, 2004. Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Thomson Learning, USA. Corey, Gerald. 2001. The Art of Integrative Counseling.Article 29 Designing an Integrative Approach to Counseling Practice Retrieved whitethorn 9, 2009 in http//counselingoutfitters. com/vistas/vistas04/29. pdf Crabb, Larry, 2000. Found in Ande rson et al resource. Christ-centered therapy. http//books. google. com/books? id=Rn-f2zL01ZwCpg=PA11lpg=PA11dq=effective+biblical+counseling+by+larry+crabb+critiquesource=webots=WFVYLIqP1nsig=MqIhqE_XfGzIQODAKV5iMPjqz14PPA19,M1 Davison, Gerald C. and John M. Neale. 2001. Abnormal Psychology. Eighth ed. John Wiley Sons, Inc. Ellis, Albert 2001.Overcoming Destructive Beliefs, Feelings, and Behaviors New Directions for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. Prometheus Books Kaplan, HI, BJ Saddock and JA Grebb. 1994. Kaplan and Saddocks Synopsis of Psychiatry Behavioral Sciences clinical psychiatry. Baltimore Williams and Wilkins. Benjamin, Ludy T. Jr. 2006. A brief history of Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell 1 edition. Bobgan, Martin Deidre. 1987. Psychology Science or Religion? From Psychoheresy The psychological seduction of Christianity. Eastgate Publishers. Retrieved May 6, 2009. http//www. rapidnet. com/jbeard/bdm/Psychology/psych. htm Boring, Edwin G. et. al. 1948. Foundat